Michael Hardt
Professor of Political Literature at The European Graduate School / EGS.
Biography
Michael Hardt (b. 1960) is a political philosopher and literary theorist, best known for three books he co-authored with Antonio Negri: Empire (2000), Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (2004), and Commonwealth (2009). The trilogy, in particular its first volume—Empire—has often been hailed as the “Communist Manifesto of the 21st Century.” Michael Hardt is a professor of literature at Duke University and a professor of philosophy at The European Graduate School / EGS.
Hardt, however, did not begin either as a philosophy or literature student. Indeed, he began as an engineer, receiving a Bachelors of Science from Swarthmore College, in 1983. During this time, Hardt worked for solar energy companies, both in Italy and the USA. This was not an apolitical time in Hardt’s life; rather, he saw work in the field of alternative energy as political: “I thought that doing alternative energy engineering for third world countries would be a way of doing politics that would get out of all this campus political posing that I hated.” After his Bachelors, he turned his attention to comparative literature, and received an MA from the University of Washington, in 1986. Four years later, he would complete a PhD in comparative literature, also at the University of Washington.
Parallel to his studies throughout the 1980s, Hardt participated in the Sanctuary Movement—a political and religious campaign to provide a safe haven in the United States to Central American refugees fleeing civil conflict. The campaign was a response to the American government’s restrictive federal policies for asylum seekers. Later, Hardt would help to organize a project to furnish the University of El Salvador with donated computer hardware and software. During this time, Hardt was also involved in contesting US funded wars across Central America. By his own account, he became progressively more radical over the course of the decade. In the 1980s, he would meet the Italian political philosopher Antonio Negri and begin a collaboration that has lasted to this day.
In addition to Empire (2000), Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire (2004), and Commonwealth (2009), Hardt and Negri have also written Labor of Dionysus: a Critique of the State-form (1994) and Declaration (2012). Aside from these works, Hardt has also written Gilles Deleuze: an Apprenticeship in Philosophy (1993), as well as numerous articles, including: The Withering of Civil Society (1995), Prison Time (1997), Affective Labour (1999), Jefferson and Democracy (2007), and How to Write with Four Hands (2013).
From when its publication until today, Empire stands as an exceptional work of the political Left for the simple reason that—unlike the majority of other works of similar ideological orientation—it proposes a total vision of the contemporary world as well as a positive outlook on the political potential of the Left today. Certainly, in the last three decades there have been numerous works that have offered comprehensive visions of the state of the world in the wake of the end of the Cold War, but they have been overwhelmingly on the side of the proponents of capitalist liberal democracy, in all of its variations. The works of Fukuyama, Nye, Huntington, Luttwak, Friedman, Brzezinski, and others, have all echoed the common sentiment that this socio-political matrix is the right one, and that political will ought to be directed towards its extension and perfection. Empire, on the other hand, critically analyses this same matrix but with a view to uncovering its hidden potential for radical political change. In consequence, it stands as one of the few theoretical works that does not see the last few decades as a long sequence of only punitive defeats of the Left.
Hardt and Negri begin Empire with a hypothesis that flies in the face of the conventional opinion, namely, although nation-state based systems are unraveling at the seams as a consequence to the unbridled power of world capital, globalization is not at all purely a process of de-regulation. Rather, there is today an exponential proliferation of national and international regulation, the interlocking of which the authors call “Empire.” The term, however, does not refer to a system—within which there is a constituting heart or core—out of which determination flows to the peripheries, but to a diffuse, heartless and anonymous network of englobing power—reminding readers of Foucault’s infamous remark that there is no longer a king’s head to be cut-off. Hardt and Negri’s contention is, in fact, that the traditional political model of determining core and subject periphery is not only inaccurate—as a description of the contemporary world—in all elements of the social edifice but would also be an inadequate form to regulate the volatile flows of capital, information, and people. Further, the authors suggest that the contemporary period demands a reinvention of critical political thought—given that the inherited political divisions between state and society, control and freedom, core and periphery, system and anti-system, and even war and peace, are no longer adequate.
In their analysis, Hardt and Negri suggest not only that there is a clean break between the new world order and the state-based colonialisms that preceded it, but also that the genealogical roots of the post-modern Empire are to be found in the Ancient Roman Empire. Referring specifically to the writings of Polybius, who proposed that the rise and endurance of the Roman Empire—through the volatile cycles of the classical polis—were on account of its constitution being a mix of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy; all of which functioned as checks against the degenerative potential inherent to a single solitary form of government. The contemporary Empire, according to Hardt and Negri, has an analogous structure: US nuclear supremacy represents the monarchic element; the economic wealth of the G7 and transnational corporations, the aristocratic element; while the internet is the democratic element. By extension, the authors propose that there is a parallel between potential revolutionaries today and the Christians of the later Roman Empire.
A further contention of the authors is that Empire is not the result of the failures of systematic challenges to capital. Rather, it is a testimony of the efficacy of some of these challenges to the old colonial nation-state form. In consequence, throughout Empire there is a constant emphasis that contemporary capitalism is not impervious, natural, or inevitable. Indeed, the authors even argue that contemporary capitalism is becoming ever more vulnerable to rebellion and revolution—in part as a result of the increased importance of immaterial and intellectual labor, which has only heightened the subversive potential of laborers and their organization.
A further critique is aimed at multiculturalists and academic enthusiasts of diversity, on account of the analysis that their agendas offer no real alternatives to the order of Empire. Moreover, Hardt and Negri propose that such positions are not even truly opposed to the logic of Empire, given that the logic of the latter no longer depends on natural difference or classical notions of hierarchy—in fact, it thrives on their absence. This criticism is extended to NGOs, which are exposed to be not at all political but charitable wings of the established order.
Much of Empire’s position, as that of its two sequels—Multitude and Commonwealth—is grounded in Negri’s earlier theoretical developments, in particular those of Autonomia, which itself drew significant influence from Guy Debord and the Situationists. Their criticisms of and propositions for political action, therefore, rely heavily on The Society of the Spectacle—in fact, Hardt and Negri contend that Empire is a society of the spectacle. And so, while the Empire appears to be driven by its subjects’ unremitting pursuit of happiness, in actuality it is driven by desires sutured to a fear of failure, loneliness, worthlessness, and exclusion. Their thesis on effective political action finds its kernel in these very false promises—which, they suggest, constitute a void wherein a new future could take root. A second fundamental influence of Negri’s earlier work found in the Trilogy is the idea that revolutionary political action must abandon its classical mediations—leaders, unions, parties, etc.—and assume the power inherent to the multitude. In short, the Trilogy is an extension of the theory of Autonomism, or Autonomia. Both Multitude and Commonwealth are continuations of the project begun in Empire, with different points of emphasis—as designated by their very titles.
— Srdjan Cvjeticanin
Works
Books
Articles
Hardt, Michael. “The Power to be Affected.” International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society Vol. 28, No. 3 (2015): 215-222.
Response : reveal the apparatus
Hardt, Michael. “Response : reveal the apparatus.” Focaal 64 (2012): 61-65.
The Fight for ‘Real Democracy’ at the Heart of Occupy Wall Street
Hardt, Michael, and Antoni Negri. “The Fight for ‘Real Democracy’ at the Heart of Occupy Wall Street.” Foreign Affairs, October 11, 2011.
Occupy Wall Street en tant que combat pour une „vraie démocratie
Hardt, Michael, and Antoni Negri. “Occupy Wall Street en tant que combat pour une „vraie démocratie.” Kales Over Blog, October 15, 2011.
Le combat pour la démocratie réelle” au cœur de ‘Occupy Wall Street
Hardt, Michael, and Antoni Negri. “Le combat pour la démocratie réelle” au cœur de ‘Occupy Wall Street’.” Translated by Nicolas Haeringer. Mouvements, October 15, 2011.
La lucha por la “democracia real” en el corazón de Occupy Wall Street
Hardt, Michael, and Antoni Negri. “La lucha por la “democracia real” en el corazón de Occupy Wall Street.” Translated by Max Hernández Calvo. The Tusk of the Translator, October 14, 2011.
Walka o ‘prawdziwą demokrację’ w samym sercu Occupy Wall Street
Hardt, Michael, and Antoni Negri. “Walka o ‘prawdziwą demokrację’ w samym sercu Occupy Wall Street.” Translated by Wiktor Marzec. korporacja ha!art, October 11, 2011.
Reclaim the common in communism
Hardt, Michael. “Reclaim the common in communism.” The Guardian, February 3, 2011.
Wiederaneignung des Gemeinsamen im Kommunismus
Hardt, Michael. “Wiederaneignung des Gemeinsamen im Kommunismus.” Translated by Stefan Meretz. keimform, 2011.
Reclamar lo común en el comunismo
Hardt, Michael. “Reclamar lo común en el comunismo.” Translated by Max Hernández Calvo. The Tusk of the Translator, February 8, 2011.
O Commum No Communismo
Hardt, Michael. “O Commum No Communismo.” Andre Barros Politica, April 18, 2011.
Zajedničko u komunizmu
Hardt, Michael. “Zajedničko u komunizmu.” Translated by Snježan Hasnaš. Subversive Festival, 2011.
Επαναοικειοποίηση των κοινών στον κομμουνισμό
Hardt, Michael. “Επαναοικειοποίηση των κοινών στον κομμουνισμό.” Παρασκευή,2011.
US education and the crisis
Hardt, Michael. “US education and the crisis.” December 1, 2010
L’erreur d’orientation des campus américains
Hardt, Michael. “L’erreur d’orientation des campus américains.” Translated by François Théron. Libération, December 2, 2010.
Edukacja w USA a kryzys finansowy
Hardt, Michael. “Edukacja w USA a kryzys finansowy.” Translated by Krystian Szadkowski. December 1, 2010.
Ameriški izobraževalni sistem v času krize
Hardt, Michael. “Ameriški izobraževalni sistem v času krize.” Translated by Sara Černe. European Graduate School, 2009.
Jefferson and Democracy
Hardt, Michael. “Jefferson and Democracy.” American Quarterly Vol. 59, No. 1, March (2007): 41-78.
From Imperialism to Empire
Hardt, Michael. “From Imperialism to Empire.” The Nation, July 13, 2006.
Immaterial Labor and Artistic Production
Hardt, Michael. “Immaterial Labor and Artistic Production.” Rethinking Marxism: A Journal of Economics, Culture & Society Vol. 17, Issue 2 (2005): 1475-8059.
The Second Empire, or The Eighteenth Brumaire of George W. Bush
Hardt, Michael. “The Second Empire, or The Eighteenth Brumaire of George W. Bush.” The Symptom 4, Spring (2003).
Porto Alegre – Today’s Bandung?
Hardt, Michael. “Porto Alegre – Today’s Bandung?” The New Left Review, 2003.
Marx’s Mole is Dead! Globalisation and Communication
Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. “Marx’s Mole is Dead! Globalisation and Communication.” Eurozine, February 13, 2002.
Marx mullvad är död! Globalisering och kommunikation
Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. “Marx mullvad är död! Globalisering och kommunikation.” Eurozine, February 10, 2002
Sovereignty
Hardt, Michael. “Sovereignty.” Theory & Event Vol. 5, Issue 4 (2001).
The eurocentrism of history
Hardt, Michael. “The eurocentrism of history.” Postcolonial Studies: culture, politics, economy Vol. 4, No. 2 (2001).
Value and Affect
Hardt, Michael, and Antoni Negri. “Value and Affect.” Boundary Vol. 26, No. 2, Summer (1999): 77-88.
Affective Labor
Hardt, Michael. “Affective Labor.” Boundary Vol. 26, No. 2, Summer (1999).
Exposure: Pasolini in the Flesh
Hardt, Michael. “Exposure: Pasolini in the Flesh.” Canadian review of comparative literature Vol. 24, No. 3 (1997).
Prison Time
Hardt, Michael. “Prison Time.” Yale French Studies 91 (1997).
The Withering of Civil Society
Hardt, Michael. “The Withering of Civil Society.” Social Text 45, Winter (1995).
Interviews
Es gab immer Alternativen
Hardt, Michael. “Es gab immer Alternativen.” Der Freitag, April 8, 2010.
Wir müssen verstehen, wer der Feind ist
Hardt, Michael, and Tania Martini. “Wir müssen verstehen, wer der Feind ist.” Der Spiegel, March 24, 2010.
The Politics of Youth: Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Micah M. White. “The Politics of Youth: Interview with Michael Hardt.” Adbusters, February 26, 2009.
We need to broaden our political possibilities.Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Remi Nilsen. “We need to broaden our political possibilities.Interview with Michael Hardt.” Le Monde diplomatique, October 2008.
Vi trenger flere politiske alternativer. Intervju med Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Remi Nilsen. “Vi trenger flere politiske alternativer. Intervju med Michael Hardt.” Le Monde diplomatique, October 2008.
Emergency. Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Nate Hawthorne. “Emergency. Interview with Michael Hardt.” Greenpepper Magazine, October 2006.
Sargnagel für Großmachtfantasien. Michael Hardt über USA und Finanzkrise
Hardt, Michael, and Ulrike Herrmann. “Sargnagel für Großmachtfantasien. Michael Hardt über USA und Finanzkrise.” Die Tageszeitung, September 22, 2008.
For the Love of the Multitude
Hardt, Michael, and Dimitris Gourdoukis. “For the Love of the Multitude.” The T-Machine, August 9, 2008.
Tarrying with the Multitude: An Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Bradley J. Macdonald. “Tarrying with the Multitude: An Interview with Michael Hardt.” New Political Science Vol. 28, No. 2, June (2006): 261-268.
Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Jamie Morgan. “Interview with Michael Hardt.” Theory, Culture & Society Vol. 23, No. 5 (2006): 93-113. ISSN: 0263-2764
A Conversation with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, Creston Davis, Jason Craig, and Chris Haley. “A Conversation with Michael Hardt.” Journal for Cultural and Religious Theory Vol. 8, No. 2, October (2005).
Autopsy Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael. “Autopsy Interview with Michael Hardt.” Autopsy, January 2005.
What is the Multitude? Interview with Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri
Hardt, Michael, Antonio Negri, and Nicholas Brown. “What is the Multitude? Interview with Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri.” Cultural Studies Vol. 19, No. 3 (2005): 372-387.
Shénme shì gún zhòng
Hardt, Michael, Antonio Negri, and Nicholas Brown. “Shénme shì gún zhòng.” Wen Yi Yan Jiu/Literature and Art Studies 7, July (2005): 108-117.
Novos Estudos
Hardt, Michael, Antonio Negri, and Nicholas Brown. “Novos Estudos.” CEBRAP 75 (2006): 93-108.
Interview de Toni Negri et Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, Toni Negri, and David Zerbib. “Interview de Toni Negri et Michael Hardt.” L’Humanité, December 2, 2004.
About Multitude. Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Olaf Karnik. “About Multitude. Interview with Michael Hardt.” December 2004.
A progressive block is an enormous possibility
Hardt, Michael. “A progressive block is an enormous possibility.” Latin America Press,August 7, 2004.
The Collaborator and the Multitude: An Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, Caleb Smith, and Enrico Minardi. “The Collaborator and the Multitude: An Interview with Michael Hardt.” The Minnesota Review 61-62 (2004).
An Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Benjamin Dangl. “An Interview with Michael Hardt.” Dissident Voice, April 20, 2004.
Empire. Conversation With Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Harry Kreisler. “Empire. Conversation With Michael Hardt.” Conversations with History, March 12, 2004.
Vers une science des étrangers?
Hardt, Michael, Brian Holmes, and Jon Salomon. “Vers une science des étrangers?” Multitudes Vol. 4, No. 14 September (2003): 220.
A Science of Foreigners?
Hardt, Michael, Brian Holmes, and Jon Salomon. “A Science of Foreigners?” Multitudes Vol. 4, No. 14 September (2003): 220.
A Trap Set for Protesters
Michael Hardt. “A Trap Set for Protesters.” The Guardian, February 21, 2003.
Zagreb Interview
Hardt, Michael, and Ognjen Strpic. “Zagreb Interview.” Croatian Radio, Third Program, December 5, 2002.
Challenging Empire: An Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, Nic Veroli, and Charles Mudede. “Challenging Empire: An Interview with Michael Hardt.” Radical Society, December 2002.
Så blev kapitalismen senil
Amin, Samir, Michael Hardt, Camilla A Lundberg, and Magnus Wennerhag. “Så blev kapitalismen senil.” Eurozine, April 4, 2002.
How Capitalism went Senile
Amin, Samir, Michael Hardt, Camilla A Lundberg, and Magnus Wennerhag. “How Capitalism went Senile,” Eurozine, May 8, 2002.
Der Kapitalismus ist senil geworden
Amin, Samir, Michael Hardt, Camilla A Lundberg, and Magnus Wennerhag. “Der Kapitalismus ist senil geworden.” Eurozine, August 22, 2002.
Rather Barbarism Than Socialism! An interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael. “Rather Barbarism Than Socialism! An interview with Michael Hardt.” Arbetaren, March 22, 200
The Global Coliseum: On Empire
Hardt, Michael, Antonio Negri, and Nicholas Brown. “The Global Coliseum: On Empire.” Cultural Studies Vol. 16, No. 2 (2002): 177-192.
Power within a Global Paradigm: Interview with Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, Jean-Marc Gorelick, and Walter Johnston. “Power within a Global Paradigm: Interview with Michael Hardt.” Bard College, December 6, 2001.
Poder No Contexto Do Paradigma Global: Entrevista com Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, Jean-Marc Gorelick, and Walter Johnston. “Poder No Contexto Do Paradigma Global: Entrevista com Michael Hardt.” Currículo sem Fronteiras Vol. 5, No. 2 July/December (2005): 101-105.
Herformulering van het Communistisch manifest. Interview Michael Hardt
Hardt, Michael, and Jim Schilder. “Herformulering van het Communistisch manifest. Interview Michael Hardt.” De Groene Amsterdammer, September 1, 2001.
A conversation with author Michael Hardt about globalization
Hardt, Michael, and Charlie Rose. “A conversation with author Michael Hardt about globalization.” Current Affairs, July 24, 2001.
Michael Hardt: Globaliseringen er positiv
Hardt, Michael, and Bjarke Møller. “Michael Hardt: Globaliseringen er positiv.” Information..., July 21, 2001.